Popular Memory

Cristero Corridos or Ballads

The corrido is a form of lyrical storytelling that may be sung or spoken, and it offers accounts of factual or fictional events from the author’s point of view. Its construction follows the region’s folkloric, poetic, and musical traditions. The preservation of corridos, sung as historical records, significantly depends on the individuals compiling them for cultural heritage.[1] Corridos can be classified into two categories, namely fictional and historical. The latter is a significant cultural representation that narrates real-life events using the local dialect of the area.[2] One type of Mexican ballad, known as a corrido, often portrays the actions and motivations of its characters based on the author’s affiliation.[3] The sung narratives present various characters, including Cristeros, landowners, women from the Santa Joan of Arc Women’s Brigades, bandits with unclear motives, warrior priests, indigenous Cristeros, governors, federal soldiers, and peaceful citizens. Notably, only two songs, “Corrido de Agripina” or “Agripina’s Ballad” and “Corrido de La Generala” or The General’s Ballad,” feature a Cristera leader in the lead role.[4] Popular corridos are not considered a completely reliable source of historical information.[5]

El Corrido de Agripina, 2015. Source: Harnizo3, YouTube.

While popular corridos were utilized to express criticism towards President Plutarco Elías Calles’ anticlerical laws during the Cristero War, it should be noted that they are not always regarded as an utterly dependable source of historical information. [6] The corridos targeted politicians, the press, and protests with short verses. They were frequently replicated with slight variations in the music and lyrics. During the Cristero War, a new literary movement arose as support for the armed conflict transitioned from passive to active, drawing from popular music tradition from the Porfiriato era (1876-1911).[7] The corrido genre of Mexican music served as an instrument for storytelling and national identity during the Mexican Revolution of 1910-1920, with a particular emphasis on the military experiences of the people.[8] The growth of religious hymns also contributed to this literary movement, including popular music related to the Cristero War. The Arreglos, or Accords between the Church and State, initiated this movement. The corridos created during the Cristero War reflected the formation of diverse alliances.[9]

The Cristero War corridos or ballads consist of several narrative lyrical compositions looking at the Cristero theme. These corridos are filled with valuable historical data and facts that inspired their creation. Corridos have been used to narrate historical events and characters, providing a deeper understanding of the Cristero War and its related facts.[10] Corridos, produced in the early 1900s, conveyed events with diverse and sometimes conflicting viewpoints. Examples of these corridos include: “Corrido de Valentín de la Sierra,” or Ballad of Valentín of the Sierra,” “Corrido Combate de San Clemente” or “San Clemente’s Battle Ballad,” “Corrido Pensilvano” or “Pennsylvania Ballad,” and “Corrido de la Contestación a las Estupideces del Bandido Rito Betancourt” or “Ballad of Response to the Stupidities of the Bandit Rito Betancourt,” and “Corrido de Andrés Salazar” or “Ballad of Andrés Salazar.”

The most famous corrido of the Cristero War depicted the hero’s courage in facing death and described the tragic cost of disloyalty.[11] Pedro Quintanar’s controlled zone produced the “Corrido de Valentín de la Sierra,” which was a popular corrido written after Valentín Ávila Ramírez, who was from Los Landa’s Ranch closer to Huejuquilla. He was killed by federal soldiers in 1928. In order to save his life, Valentín betrayed his fellow Cristeros. The “Corrido of Valentín de la Sierra” grew popular and became known all over Mexico. The original meaning of the corrido was lost when it was shortened and recast as a hero. Lidio Pacheco posed his tragedy.[12] The corrido’s text of “Valentín” had been restored by A. Estrada.[13]

Vinicio Aleman, Valentín de La Sierra, Homenaje Regional a Valentín de La Sierra, Streaming Video, 2017. Source: Youtube.

The “Corrido Combate de San Clemente” or San Clemente Battle Ballad” recorded women transporting weapons during the Cristero War.[14] BI-BI, Invisible Brigade-Invincible Brigade or Santa Juana de Arco Female Brigades were a secret society of militant women comprising “seamstresses, secretaries, and retail workers” from Guadalajara. They showed great enthusiasm for the national boycotts staged by the Liga or National League for the Defense of Religious Liberty (LNDLR) in 1925 and 1926 and embraced their role in supporting the Cristeros during the conflict that heightened in the summer of 1927. The group’s bylaws outlined different methods of support for the Catholic Church, including espionage, charity work, fundraising, and propaganda dissemination. The acquisition and delivery of weapons were also emphasized as essential means of defense.[15] In San Clemente, the participation of BI-BI or Santa Juana de Arco Female Brigades was significant. Although the corrido was unsigned, it is believed to have been written by Second Lieutenant Aldaberto Guzmán.[16]

The “Corrido Pensilvanio” or “Pennsylvania Ballad” narrates the struggles faced by Mexican immigrants in the United States.[17] Mexico’s population had drastically decreased in the early twentieth century due to internal conflicts, the Mexican Revolution, the Cristero War, rebellions, and epidemics.[18] Capitalists on the northern border of the US then encouraged the migration of Mexican laborers to increase their profits through cheap labor. As a result, Mexican day laborers were encouraged to migrate to the neighboring country in the third decade of the twentieth century.[19] The corrido was first recorded in Chicago, Illinois, in 1929 by Pedro Rocha and Lupe Martínez.[20] The Cristero War (1926-1929 and 1932-1941) took place during this period. Several Mexican immigrants traveled by train from Fort Worth, Texas, to work in the Bethlehem Steel Corporation in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, and in the coal mines in Scotts Run, West Virginia.[21] In the 1920s, during a peak of mining activity in Scotts Run, West Virginia, workers of Mexican and African American descent were brought in to address the labor shortage caused by strikes. By 1926, they constituted a noteworthy portion of the workforce, although only a tiny fraction held the more desirable positions. Over time, these communities integrated into local society, with approximately a quarter of all mines eventually employing them. It led to widespread acceptance and significant intermingling through marriages and social interactions among different groups.[22]

Pedro Rocha and Lupe Martínez, Trovadores Mexicanos – Corrido De Pennsylvania, 1929. Source: The Arhoolie Foundation’s Strachwitz Frontera Collection, Youtube.

The “Corrido de la Contestación a las Estupideces del Bandido Rito Betancourt,” or “Ballad of Response to the Stupidities of the Bandit Rito Betancourt,” rejects feebleness, betrayal, and extremism. In Huejuquilla El Alto, in the Jalisco region, Cristeros attacked federal troops and agraristas, or pro-government militias, in the country’s central-western states. The Cristero allies praised and sympathized with the fighting of Pedro Quintanar and his troops, and both sides used corridos to express their hatred. Lidio Pacheco is credited with creating the corrido.[23]

The history of the division of Colima’s society was reflected in the corridos. The “Corrido de Andrés Salazar” or “Ballad of Andrés Salazar” was composed after the struggles of the Colima society during the war. During the Cristero War, the “Corrido de Andrés Salazar” depicted Colima’s societal division and the government’s struggles to suppress revolts. This corrido showed a lyrical sample of the frustrated efforts of the government militia to destroy the rural base of the “fanatical” revolts.[24] The history of the corrido or ballad dates back to the 1920s when Colima’s citizens experienced political, economic, and social unrest. The government controlled the Catholic Church in Colima after they shot at people at a protest against the Calles law.[25]  Cristero soldiers were scattered throughout the area. A few hours after the Cristero were called upon to attack, a column of two hundred or three hundred Cristero soldiers was formed, in which the Cristeros excelled at guerrilla warfare.[26] They had an extensive network of small and large camps in the foothills of Colima.[27] Disselhoff, Loc, collected the corrido.[28]

The Cristero War (1926-1929 and 1932-1941) produced more corridos than the sixty-nine collected by Antonio Avitia Hernandez from the location of the uprising. Jean Meyer and Alicia Olivera de Bonfil cited the missing corridos that were not included in Avitia Hernandez’s study. Ethnomusicologists recorded several Cristero corridos from their place of origin.[29] Irene Vázquez Valle and José de Santiago Silva from Los Altos, Jalisco, and Zacatecas preserved nine Cristero corridos. These were first recorded in Los Angeles, California, and San Antonio, Texas. The National Institute of Anthropology and History produced the 1976 vinyl edition. Avitia included two Cristero corridos, “Corrido de Maximiliano Vigueras” and “Corrido del Conflicto Religioso y Los Arreglos,” which were first recorded in Los Angeles, California, and San Antonio, Texas. Eventually, corridos traveled across borders as people did. Cristero corridos were welcomed in the United States by other Mexican immigrants who sympathized with the Cristeros. However, Cristero corridos remained within the cities where the uprising occurred. The Cristero corridos spread to the US because of Mexican immigrants.[30]

In 2008, Manuel Olimón Nolasco, a distinguished Mexican historian and priest, shared an account of a serene road trip he had taken years earlier along California’s picturesque Route 1. He recounted the poignant experience of turning on the radio during his journey and being deeply moved as it played a series of Cristero corridos or ballads that elegantly and poignantly celebrated marginalized historical figures. These songs served as a testament to the enduring memories of the Cristero War, which have been cherished and sustained within the United States through communities of exiles from Jalisco, Colima, Nayarit, and other regions of Mexico.[31]

The Cristero corrido, a distinctive religious genre, meticulously captured the experiences, values, and spirituality of Cristero through lyrical texts that emerged after the Revolution. The corrido continued the epic hero archetype of the Revolutionary classic corrido. It transformed the hero’s religiosity into a mission against governmental injustice. The passing of a Cristero epic hero symbolizes the passing of a martyr and an exemplum of the Catholic faith. The collection of Cristero War and Cristero-themed corridos is an invaluable insight into Cristero religion and politics and the Cristero interpretation of the post-Revolutionary period and Cristero War. In the aftermath of the Cristero War, newly composed Cristero corridos adopted a thematic approach rather than focusing on specific individuals, locations, or events. These corridos or ballads effectively convey the emotional turmoil and struggle against injustice experienced by the Cristero community, drawing on the collective memory of previous generations and those who came after the Cristiada.[32]

[1] Antonio Avitia Hernández, “La narrativa de las Cristiadas: novela, cuento, teatro, cine y corrido de las Rebeliones Cristeras” (PhD diss., Iztapalapa, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, Iztapalapa, 2006), 633, https://bindani.izt.uam.mx/concern/tesiuams/v118rd79k.

[2] Avitia Hernández, 633.

[3] Avitia Hernández, 635.

[4] Avitia Hernández, 640.

[5] Avitia Hernández, 633.

[6] Young, “Cristero Diaspora,” 25.

[7] Alicia Olivera de Bonfil, La literatura cristera, [1. ed.], (Serie Historia, 23) (México: Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, 1970), 2.

[8] Stephen Neufeld and Michael Matthews, eds., Mexico in Verse: A History of Music, Rhyme, and Power (Tucson: The University of Arizona Press, 2015), 12.

[9] Olivera de Bonfil, La literatura cristera; James R. Nicolopulos, “Introduction to Corridos of the Cristiada,” accessed July 27, 2023, https://www.laits.utexas.edu/jaime/cwp5/crg/english/intro/index.html.

[10] Avitia Hernández, “La narrativa de las Cristiadas,” 5.

[11] Lawrence, Insurgency, Counter-Insurgency and Policing in Centre-West Mexico, 1926-1929, 36.

[12] Stephen J C Andes, “Singing for Cristo Rey: Masculinity, Piety, and Dissent in Mexico’s Cristero Rebellion,” in Mexico in Verse: A History of Music, Rhyme, and Power, ed. Stephen Neufeld and Michael Matthews (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2015), 196; Meyer, La Cristiada: la guerra, 1979, 405, 407.

[13] Meyer, La Cristiada: la guerra, 1979, 590; “Corridos de la Rebelión Cristera,” Mediateca – Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, accessed August 6, 2023, https://mediateca.inah.gob.mx/islandora_74/islandora/object/disco%3A13. Several versions of this corrido are available in various compilations of Cristero corrido literature. For reference, please consult “El Corrido de Valentín de la Sierra,” “Corridos de la Rebelión Cristera” (INAH), which is based on field recordings collected in Jalisco and Zacatecas by Irene Vázquez Valle and José de Santiago Silva. The song was released on vinyl in 1976 and re-released on CD in 2002.

[14] María. Herrera-Sobek, The Mexican Corrido: A Feminist Analysis, 1st Midland book ed (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993), 100.

[15] Andes, “Singing for Cristo Rey: Masculinity, Piety, and Dissent in Mexico’s Cristero Rebellion,” 199; Antonio Avitia Hernández, Corrido Histórico Mexicano: voy a cantarles la historia (1924-1936), 1st ed., vol. 4 (México: Editorial Porrúa, 2012), 101–4; Ricardo Alvarez-Pimentel, “From Secret War to Cold War: Race, Catholicism, and the Un-Making of Counterrevolutionary Mexico, 1917-1946” (PhD diss., New Haven, Yale University, 2022), 103, https://elischolar.library.yale.edu/gsas_dissertations/696; Meyer, The Cristero Rebellion, 24:122–26.

[16] Andes, “Singing for Cristo Rey: Masculinity, Piety, and Dissent in Mexico’s Cristero Rebellion,” 199; Avitia Hernández, Corrido Histórico Mexicano, 4:101–6.

[17] Avitia Hernández, Corrido Histórico Mexicano, 4:107–8.

[18] Carrillo, “Del miedo a la enfermedad al miedo a los pobres”; Claudia Agostoni, ed., Curar, sanar y educar. Enfermedad y sociedad en México, siglos XIX y XX (Mexico, D.F: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 2018); Claudia Agostoni, “Popular Health Education and Propaganda in Times of Peace and War in Mexico City, 1890s–1920s,” American Journal of Public Health 96, no. 1 (January 2006): 52–61, https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2004.044388; Claudia Agostoni, “Historia de un escándalo. Campañas y resistencia contra la difteria y la escarlatina en la ciudad de México, 1926-1927,” Curar, sanar y educar. Enfermedad y sociedad en México, siglos XIX-XX, Claudia Agostoni (coord.), México, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas/Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Instituto de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades “Alfonso Vélez Pliego”, 2008 (Historia Moderna y Contemporánea 49)., 2008, https://ru.historicas.unam.mx/handle/20.500.12525/964; Avitia Hernández, Corrido Histórico Mexicano, 4:107–8; José Sanfilippo-Borrás, “Algunas enfermedades y epidemias en torno a la Revolución Mexicana,” Revista Médica del Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social 48, no. 2 (2010): 163–66, https://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=457745507009; Plutarco Elías Calles, Informes Rendidos Por El C. Gral Plutarco Elias Calles, Presidente Constitucional de Los Estados Unidos Mexicanos, Ante El H. Congreso de La Union Los Dias 1⁰. de Septiembre de 1925 y 1⁰. Septiembre de 1926 y Contestacion de Los Cc. Presidentes Del Citado Congreso, HeinOnline World Constitutions Illustrated (Mexico, D.F: Talleres Graficos de la Nacion “Diario Oficial,” 1925), https://www.diputados.gob.mx/sedia/sia/re/RE-ISS-09-06-04.pdf.

[19] Avitia Hernández, Corrido Histórico Mexicano, 4:107–8.

[20] Avitia Hernández, 4:107–8; Taylor, Mexican Labor in the United States: Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, 7: vii–ix; Jaime Javier Rodríguez, “El ‘Adiós Tejas’ in El Corrido Pensilvanio: Migration, Place, and Politics in South Texas,” MELUS: Multi-Ethnic Literature of the U.S. 40, no. 1 (2015): 76–98, https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/8/article/578773; Américo Paredes, A Texas-Mexican Cancionero: Folksongs of the Lower Border, 1st University of Texas Press ed (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1995), 26.

[21] Taylor, Mexican Labor in the United States: Bethlehem, Pennsylvania; Oral Interview Monica De Leon; Oral Interview Eva Victoria Rodríguez Durán; Ramos, Oral Interview; Ramos Nájera, Oral Interview; Oral Interview with Isabel Duran; Jerry Bruce Thomas, An Appalachian New Deal: West Virginia in the Great Depression, 1st ed., West Virginia and Appalachia (Morgantown: West Virginia University Press, 2010), 53.

[22] Marion Post Wolcott, “Untitled Photo, Possibly Related to: Mexican Miner and Child, Bertha Hill, West Virginia” (1 negative: nitrate; 35 mm., United States–West Virginia–Bertha Hill, 1938), Farm Security Administration – Office of War Information Photograph Collection (Library of Congress), Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, DC 20540 USA http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.print, https://www.loc.gov/item/2017752778/; Marion Post Wolcott, “Mexican Miner’s Son. Bertha Hill, Scotts Run, West Virginia” (1 negative : nitrate ; 2 1/4 x 2 1/4 inches or smaller., United States–West Virginia–Bertha Hill, 1938), Farm Security Administration – Office of War Information Photograph Collection (Library of Congress), Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, DC 20540 USA http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.print, https://www.loc.gov/item/2017799328/; Marion Post Wolcott, “Son of Mexican Miner in Backyard, Scotts Run, Bertha Hill, West Virginia” (1 negative: nitrate; 35 mm., United States–West Virginia–Bertha Hill, 1938), Farm Security Administration – Office of War Information Photograph Collection (Library of Congress), Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, DC 20540 USA http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.print, https://www.loc.gov/item/2017753244/; Marion Post Wolcott, “Mexican Miner’s Wife Making Stew. Scotts Run, Bertha Hill, West Virginia” (1 negative: nitrate; 35 mm., United States–West Virginia–Bertha Hill, 1938), Farm Security Administration – Office of War Information Photograph Collection (Library of Congress), Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, DC 20540 USA http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.print, https://www.loc.gov/item/2017799603/; Marion Post Wolcott, “Untitled Photo, Possibly Related to: Mexican Miner and Child, Bertha Hill, West Virginia” (1 negative: nitrate; 35 mm., –  United States–West Virginia–Monongalia County–Scotts Run, 1938), Farm Security Administration – Office of War Information Photograph Collection (Library of Congress), Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, DC 20540 USA http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.print, https://www.loc.gov/item/2017752780/; Marion Post Wolcott, “Mexican Coal Miner and His Friend’s Son. Bertha Hill, West Virginia” (1 negative: nitrate; 35 mm., United States–West Virginia–Bertha Hill, 1938), Farm Security Administration – Office of War Information Photograph Collection (Library of Congress), Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, DC 20540 USA http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.print, https://www.loc.gov/item/2017799469/; Marion Post Wolcott, “Mexican Miner’s Wife. She Doesn’t Speak English. Scotts Run, Bertha Hill, West Virginia” (1 negative: nitrate; 35 mm., United States–West Virginia–Bertha Hill, 1938), Farm Security Administration – Office of War Information Photograph Collection (Library of Congress), Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, DC 20540 USA http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.print, https://www.loc.gov/item/2017753255/; Marion Post Wolcott, “Untitled Photo, Possibly Related to: Mexican Miner and Child, Bertha Hill, West Virginia” (1 negative: nitrate; 35 mm., –  United States–West Virginia–Monongalia County–Scotts Run, 1938), Farm Security Administration – Office of War Information Photograph Collection (Library of Congress), Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, DC 20540 USA http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.print, https://www.loc.gov/item/2017799327/; Wolcott, “Mexican Miner’s Son. Bertha Hill, Scotts Run, West Virginia”; Wolcott, “Untitled Photo, Possibly Related to: Mexican Miner and Child, Bertha Hill, West Virginia,” 1938; Marion Post Wolcott, “Untitled Photo, Possibly Related to: Mexican Miner and Child, Bertha Hill, West Virginia” (1 negative: nitrate; 35 mm., –  United States–West Virginia–Monongalia County–Scotts Run, 1938), Farm Security Administration – Office of War Information Photograph Collection (Library of Congress), Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, DC 20540 USA http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.print, https://www.loc.gov/item/2017752778/; Wolcott, “Untitled Photo, Possibly Related to: Mexican Miner and Child, Bertha Hill, West Virginia,” 1938; Marion Post Wolcott, “Mexican Miner, Bertha Hill, Scotts Run, West Virginia” (1 negative: nitrate; 35 mm., –  United States–West Virginia–Monongalia County–Scotts Run, 1938), Farm Security Administration – Office of War Information Photograph Collection (Library of Congress), Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, DC 20540 USA http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.print, https://www.loc.gov/item/2017752855/; Marion Post Wolcott, “Mexican Miner and Child, Bertha Hill, Scotts Run, West Virginia” (1 negative: nitrate; 35 mm., –  United States–West Virginia–Monongalia County–Scotts Run, 1938), Farm Security Administration – Office of War Information Photograph Collection (Library of Congress), Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, DC 20540 USA http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.print, https://www.loc.gov/item/2017753035/; Marion Post Wolcott, “Mexican Miner, Bertha Hill, Scotts Run, West Virginia” (1 negative: nitrate; 35 mm., –  United States–West Virginia–Monongalia County–Scotts Run, 1938), Farm Security Administration – Office of War Information Photograph Collection (Library of Congress), Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, DC 20540 USA http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.print, https://www.loc.gov/item/2017752873/; Wolcott, “Mexican Miner and Child, Bertha Hill, Scotts Run, West Virginia”; Marion Post Wolcott, “Mexican Miners Looking at ‘Funny Papers.’ Bertha Hill, Scotts Run, West Virginia” (1 negative: nitrate; 35 mm., –  United States–West Virginia–Monongalia County–Scotts Run, 1938), Farm Security Administration – Office of War Information Photograph Collection (Library of Congress), Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, DC 20540 USA http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.print, https://www.loc.gov/item/2017753204/; Marion Post Wolcott, “Untitled Photo, Possibly Related to: Mexican Miner and Child, Bertha Hill, West Virginia” (1 negative: nitrate; 35 mm., –  United States–West Virginia–Monongalia County–Scotts Run, 1938), Farm Security Administration – Office of War Information Photograph Collection (Library of Congress), Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, DC 20540 USA http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.print, https://www.loc.gov/item/2017753042/; Marion Post Wolcott, “Mexican Miner’s Children Feeding Chickens in the Kitchen. Their Mother Is Thirty Years Old and Has Had Ten Children. Scotts Run, Bertha Hill, West Virginia” (1 negative: nitrate; 35 mm., –  United States–West Virginia–Monongalia County–Scotts Run, 1938), Farm Security Administration – Office of War Information Photograph Collection (Library of Congress), Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, DC 20540 USA http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.print, https://www.loc.gov/item/2017799575/; Marion Post Wolcott, “Mexican Miner Protesting ‘I Don’t Want to Just Grow up to Rust and Die.’ He’s Fifty Years Old. Scotts Run, Bertha Hill, West Virginia” (1 negative: nitrate; 35 mm., –  United States–West Virginia–Monongalia County–Scotts Run, 1938), Farm Security Administration – Office of War Information Photograph Collection (Library of Congress), Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, DC 20540 USA http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.print, https://www.loc.gov/item/2017799604/; Marion Post Wolcott, “Mexican Miner’s Wife and Child Are Visited by Another Miner’s Wife (Hungarian) Who Is Interested in Starting a Maternal Health Clinic There. Scotts Run, Bertha Hill, West Virginia” (1 negative: nitrate; 35 mm., –  United States–West Virginia–Monongalia County–Scotts Run, 1938), Farm Security Administration – Office of War Information Photograph Collection (Library of Congress), Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, DC 20540 USA http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/pp.print, https://www.loc.gov/item/2017753246/.

[23] Andes, “Singing for Cristo Rey: Masculinity, Piety, and Dissent in Mexico’s Cristero Rebellion,” 181–82.

[24] Meyer, La Cristiada: la guerra, 1979, 1:107; Consuelo Reguer, Dios y mi derecho: Antecedentes-Epopeya Cristera-Clímax de la Epopeya Cristera Obispos-Boletines y Documentos, 1. ed, vol. 1 (México: Editorial Jus, 1997), 694–95; David Oseguera, “Entre bandidos y cristeros: Narrativa lírica popular en la historia de Colima,” Desacatos, no. 50 (April 2016): 102–21, https://www.redalyc.org/journal/139/13943562008/html/#B1; Jean Meyer, “Colima en la Cristiada,” Estudios de historia moderna y contemporánea de México, no. 16 (1993): 101–13, https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=2733745; Jesus Enrique Ochoa, Los Cristeros del Volcán de Colima: escenas de la lucha por la libertad religiosa en México, 1926-1929, 2. ed, vol. 1, 2 vols., Colección Figuras y episodios de la historia de México (Mexico: Editorial Jus, 1961); Ochoa, Los Cristeros del Volcán de Colima, 1961.

[25] Oseguera, “Entre bandidos y cristeros: Narrativa lírica popular en la historia de Colima,” 102–21.

[26] Meyer, “Colima en la Cristiada,” 101–2.

[27] Meyer, 105–6.

[28] Meyer, La Cristiada: la guerra, 1979, 589.

[29] Andes, “Singing for Cristo Rey: Masculinity, Piety, and Dissent in Mexico’s Cristero Rebellion,” 186; Olivera de Bonfil, La literatura cristera.

[30] Andes, “Singing for Cristo Rey: Masculinity, Piety, and Dissent in Mexico’s Cristero Rebellion,” 186–87.

[31] Young, Mexican Exodus, 177.

[32] Teresita D. Lozano, “Songs for the Holy Coyote: Cristero Corridos and Immigration Politics on the U.S.-Mexico Borderlands” (PhD diss., Boulder, University of Colorado Boulder, 2020), 141–42, https://scholar.colorado.edu/concern/graduate_thesis_or_dissertations/x059c850f.